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The 18th century lasted from 1 January 1701 (represented by the MDCCI) to 31 December 1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of Enlightenment thinking culminated in the Atlantic Revolutions. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The Industrial Revolution began mid-century, leading to radical changes in and the environment. The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail. During the century, slave trading expanded across the shores of the , while declining in and .

historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.

(1979). 9780198225485, Oxford University Press. .
(2025). 9780300091519, Yale University Press.
To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century
(2025). 9780340813720, Arnold.
may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815
(2025). 9780199246779, Oxford University Press, USA.
, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1 or even later.
(1997). 9780340567517, A Hodder Arnold Publication. .
France was the sole world from 1659, after it defeated , until 1815, when it was defeated by Britain and its coalitions following the .

In , philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars. Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Years' War, saw Great Britain triumph over its rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over the Thirteen Colonies became a catalyst for the American Revolution. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to prevent partition by the neighboring states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

In , led in successful military campaigns. The experienced a period of peace, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.

In , the death of Mughal emperor was followed by the expansion of the Maratha Confederacy and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the . Later, his general Ahmad Shah Durrani scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer eastern India, and by the end of the century, the Anglo-Mysore Wars against and his father , led to Company rule over the south.

(1988). 9789694070919, Royal Book Company. .

In , the century was marked by the High Qing era, a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continual of the Tokugawa shogunate also brought a peaceful era called and experienced a flourishment of the as well as , which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. In , the Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn Wars broke out while the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate.

In , the underwent the , a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The Atlantic slave trade also saw the continued involvement of states such as the . In , the European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century. In the , the declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, wrote the Declaration of Independence. In 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president. Benjamin Franklin traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the and . Túpac Amaru II led an uprising that sought to end Spanish colonial rule in Peru.

Events
1701–1750
  • 1700–1721: Great Northern War between the and .
  • 1701: Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I.
  • 1701: The Battle of Feyiase marks the rise of the .
  • 1701–1714: The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe.
  • 1702–1715: in France.
  • 1703: is founded by Peter the Great; it is the Russian capital until 1918.
  • 1703–1711: The Rákóczi uprising against the Habsburg monarchy.
  • 1704: End of Japan's period.
  • 1704: First Javanese War of Succession.Ricklefs (1991), page 82
  • 1706–1713: The War of the Spanish Succession: French troops defeated at the Battle of Ramillies and the Siege of Turin.
  • 1707: Death of Mughal Emperor leads to the fragmentation of the .
  • 1707: The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.
  • 1708: The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
  • 1708–1709: Famine kills one-third of 's population.
  • 1709: Foundation of the .
  • 1709: The Great Frost of 1709 marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of at Poltava.
  • 1710: The world's first , Britain's Statute of Anne, takes effect.
  • 1710–1711: fights Russia in the Russo-Turkish War and regains .
  • 1711: Bukhara Khanate dissolves as local begs seize power.
  • 1711–1715: between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the of .
  • 1713: The acknowledges the full recovery of the Chinese economy since its apex during the .
  • 1714: In Amsterdam, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the mercury-in-glass thermometer, which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era.
  • 1715: The first Jacobite rising breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the Battle of Sheriffmuir; Battle of Preston.
  • 1716: Establishment of the along the present-day India- border.
  • 1716–1718: Austro-Venetian-Turkish War.
  • 1718: The city of is founded by the French in North America.
  • 1718–1720: War of the Quadruple Alliance with Spain versus France, Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands.
  • 1718–1730: of the Ottoman Empire.
  • 1719: Second Javanese War of Succession.Ricklefs (1991), page 84
  • 1720: The South Sea Bubble.
  • 1720–1721: The Great Plague of Marseille.
  • 1720: Qing forces oust invaders from .
  • 1721: The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War.
  • 1721: Sack of Shamakhi, massacre of its Shia population by .
  • 1722: Siege of Isfahan results in the handover of Iran to the .
  • 1722–1723: Russo-Persian War.
  • 1722–1725: Controversy over William Wood's halfpence leads to the Drapier's Letters and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement.
  • 1723: is abolished in Russia; Peter the Great converts household slaves into house .
  • 1723–1730: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of territories by the .
  • 1723–1732: The Qing and the Dzungars fight a series of wars across , , and , with inconclusive results.
  • 1724: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit proposes the temperature scale.
  • 1725: Austro-Spanish alliance revived. Russia joins in 1726.
  • 1727–1729: Anglo-Spanish War ends inconclusively.
  • 1730: takes over Ottoman Empire after the revolt, ending the .
  • 1730–1760: The First Great Awakening takes place in Great Britain and North America.
  • 1732–1734: raids into Russia.
  • 1733–1738: War of the Polish Succession.
  • 1735–1739: Austro-Russo-Turkish War.
  • 1735–1799: The of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
  • 1738–1756: Famine across the ; half the population of dies.
  • 1737–1738: Hotak Empire ends after the siege of Kandahar by .
  • 1739: Great Britain and Spain fight the War of Jenkins' Ear in the Caribbean.
  • 1739: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the Battle of Karnal. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.
  • 1739–1740: Nader Shah's Sindh expedition.
  • 1740: George Whitefield brings the First Great Awakening to New England
  • 1740–1741: Famine in Ireland kills 20 percent of the population.
  • 1741–1743: Iran invades Uzbekistan, Khwarazm, , and .
  • 1741–1751: Maratha invasions of Bengal.
  • 1740–1748: War of the Austrian Succession.
  • 1742: Marvel's Mill, the first water-powered , begins operation in England.
  • 1742: proposes an inverted form of the centigrade temperature, which is later renamed in his honor.
  • 1742: Premiere of George Frideric Handel's Messiah.
  • 1743–1746: Another Ottoman-Persian War involves 375,000 men but ultimately ends in a stalemate.
  • 1744: The First Saudi State is founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud.
  • 1744: Battle of Toulon is fought off the coast of France.
  • 1744–1748: The is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
  • 1745: Second Jacobite rising is begun by Charles Edward Stuart in Scotland.
  • 1747: The is founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani.
  • 1748: The Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
  • 1748–1754: The is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
  • 1750: Peak of the Little Ice Age.

1751–1800
  • 1752: The adopts the Gregorian Calendar, skipping 11 days from 3 September to 13 September. On the calendar, 2 September is followed directly by 14 September.
  • 1754: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of the Carnatic.
  • 1754: King's College is founded by a royal charter of George II of Great Britain.
  • 1754–1763: The French and Indian War, the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War, is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies.
  • 1755: The great Lisbon earthquake destroys most of 's capital and kills up to 100,000.
  • 1755: The depopulates much of northern Xinjiang, allowing for Han, Uyghur, Khalkha Mongol, and Manchu colonization.
  • 1755–1763: The Great Upheaval forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
  • 1756–1763: The Seven Years' War is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
  • 1756–1763: The Third Carnatic War is fought between the British, the French, and Mysore in India.
  • 1757: British conquest of Bengal.
  • 1760: becomes King of Britain.
  • 1761: defeated at Battle of Panipat.
  • 1762–1796: Reign of Catherine the Great of Russia.
  • 1763: The Treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War.
  • 1764: and the defeat the Ashanti army at the Battle of Atakpamé.
  • 1764: The Mughals are defeated at the Battle of Buxar.
  • 1765: The Stamp Act is introduced into the American colonies by the British Parliament.
  • 1765–1767: The Burmese invade Thailand and utterly destroy Attuthaya.
  • 1765–1769: under repels from Qing China, securing hegemony over the .
  • 1766: becomes king of Denmark. He was to 1808.
  • 1766–1799: Anglo-Mysore Wars.
  • 1767: expels Burmese invaders and reunites Thailand under an authoritarian regime.
  • 1768–1772: War of the Bar Confederation.
  • 1768–1774: Russo-Turkish War.
  • 1769: Spanish establish the first of 21 missions in .
  • 1769–1770: explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
  • 1769–1773: The Bengal famine of 1770 kills one-third of the Bengal population.
  • 1769: The French East India Company dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
  • 1769: French expeditions capture plants in , ending the Dutch East India Company's (VOC) monopoly of the plant.Ricklefs (1991), page 102
  • 1770–1771: Famine in Czech lands kills hundreds of thousands.
  • 1771: The Plague Riot in Moscow.
  • 1771: The dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand migrate back to Qing Dzungaria.
  • 1772: of Sweden stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.
  • 1772–1779: Maratha Empire fights Britain and 's forces during the First Anglo-Maratha War.
  • 1772–1795: The Partitions of Poland end the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
  • 1773–1775: Pugachev's Rebellion, the largest peasant revolt in Russian history.
  • 1773: East India Company starts operations in to smuggle opium into China.
  • 1775: Russia imposes a reduction in autonomy on the of Ukraine.
  • 1775–1782: First Anglo-Maratha War.
  • 1775–1783: American Revolutionary War.
  • 1776: Several are founded by Chinese settlers in the island of . They are some of the first democracies in Asia.
  • 1776–1777: A Spanish-Portuguese War occurs over land in the South American frontiers.
  • 1776: founded by .
  • 1776: The United States Declaration of Independence is adopted by the Second Continental Congress in .
  • 1776: publishes The Wealth of Nations.
  • 1778: becomes the first European to land on the .
  • 1778: Franco-American alliance signed.
  • 1778: Spain acquires its from the Portuguese, which is administered by the newly-established La Plata Viceroyalty.
  • 1778: Vietnam is reunified for the first time in 200 years by the Tay Son brothers. The Tây Sơn dynasty has been established, terminating the Lê dynasty.
  • 1779–1879: between British and settlers and the in the South African Republic.
  • 1779–1783: Britain loses several islands and colonial outposts all over the world to the combined Franco-Spanish navy.
  • 1779: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of Karim Khan Zand.
  • 1780: Outbreak of the indigenous rebellion against Spanish colonization led by Túpac Amaru II in .
  • 1781: The city of Los Angeles is founded by Spanish settlers.]]
  • 1781–1785: is abolished in the Austrian monarchy (first step; second step in 1848).
  • 1782: The of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
  • 1783: The Treaty of Paris formally ends the American Revolutionary War.
  • 1783: Russian annexation of .
  • 1785–1791: Imam , a warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout the in a against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.
  • 1785–1795: The Northwest Indian War is fought between the United States and Native Americans.
  • 1785–1787: The Maratha–Mysore Wars concludes with an exchange of territories in the .
  • 1786–1787: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart premieres The Marriage of Figaro and .
  • 1787: The occupy Timbuktu until the 19th century.
  • 1787–1792: Russo-Turkish War.
  • 1788: arrives in Australia
  • 1788–1790: Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).
  • 1788: Dutch Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788–1899) would become the first generally accepted validated case of a on record. Photo Gallery for Supercentenarians born before 1850, as of May 17, 2019
  • 1788–1789: A Qing attempt to reinstall an exiled Vietnamese king in northern Vietnam ends in disaster.
  • 1789: George Washington is elected the first President of the United States; he serves until 1797.
  • 1789: defeats the army.
  • 1789–1799: French Revolution.
  • 1789: The Liège Revolution.
  • 1789: The Brabant Revolution.
  • 1789: The italic=no, an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by
  • 1791: Suppression of the Liège Revolution by Austrian forces and re-establishment of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège.
  • 1791–1795: explores the world during the Vancouver Expedition.
  • 1791–1804: The Haitian Revolution.
  • 1791: Mozart premieres The Magic Flute.
  • 1792–1802: The French Revolutionary Wars lead into the , which last from 1803–1815.
  • 1792: The New York Stock & Exchange Board is founded.
  • 1792: Polish–Russian War of 1792.
  • 1792: Margaret Ann Neve (1792–1903) would become the first recorded female to reach the age of 110.
    (2005). 9781845111519, I.B.Tauris, 2006.
  • 1793: bans slavery.
  • 1793: The largest yellow fever epidemic in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in , roughly 10% of the population.
  • 1793–1796: Revolt in the Vendée against the French Republic at the time of the Revolution.
  • 1794–1816: The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, which were a series of incidents between settlers and New South Wales Corps and the Aboriginal Australian clans of the in , .
  • 1795: The is officially adopted as the French . at the Bridge of the Arcole]]
  • 1795: The Battle of Nuuanu in the final days of King 's wars to unify the Hawaiian Islands.
  • 1795–1796: Iran invades and devastates Georgia, prompting Russia to intervene and march on Tehran.
  • 1796: administers the first smallpox vaccination; killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning .
  • 1796: War of the First Coalition: The Battle of Montenotte marks Napoleon Bonaparte's first victory as an army commander.
  • 1796: The British eject the Dutch from and South Africa.
  • 1796–1804: The White Lotus Rebellion against the in China.
  • 1797: is elected the second President of the United States; he serves until 1801.
  • 1798: The Irish Rebellion fails to overthrow British rule in Ireland.
  • 1798–1800: The is fought between the United States and France.
  • 1799: Dutch East India Company is dissolved.
  • 1799: Austro-Russian forces under Alexander Suvorov liberates much of Italy and Switzerland from French occupation.
  • 1799: Coup of 18 Brumaire - 's coup d'etat brings the end of the French Revolution.
  • 1799: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after 60 years of rule over China. His favorite official, , is ordered to commit suicide.
  • 1800: On 1 January, the bankrupt VOC is formally dissolved and the nationalized Dutch East Indies are established.Ricklefs (1991), page 106

Inventions, discoveries, and introductions

Literary and philosophical achievements
  • 1703: The Love Suicides at Sonezaki by first performed
  • 1704–1717: One Thousand and One Nights translated into French by . The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.
  • 1704: A Tale of a Tub by first published
  • 1712: The Rape of the Lock by (publication of first version)
  • 1719: by
  • 1725: The New Science by Giambattista Vico
  • 1726: Gulliver's Travels by
  • 1728: by (publication of first version)
  • 1744: A Little Pretty Pocket-Book becomes one of the first books marketed for children
  • 1748: ( The Treasury of Loyal Retainers), popular Japanese , composed
  • 1748: Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady by Samuel Richardson
  • 1749: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by
  • 1751: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by published
  • 1751–1785: The French Encyclopédie
  • 1755: A Dictionary of the English Language by
  • 1758: Arithmetika Horvatzka by Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić
  • 1759: by
  • 1759: The Theory of Moral Sentiments by
  • 1759–1767: by
  • 1762: by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  • 1762: The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  • 1774: The Sorrows of Young Werther by first published
  • 1776: Ugetsu Monogatari ( Tales of Moonlight and Rain) by
  • 1776: The Wealth of Nations, foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by
  • 1776–1789: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was published by
  • 1779: published by
  • 1779–1782: Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets by
  • 1781: Critique of Pure Reason by (publication of first edition)
  • 1781: by Friedrich Schiller first published
  • 1782: Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
  • 1786: Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect by
  • 1787–1788: The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, , and
  • 1788: Critique of Practical Reason by
  • 1789: Songs of Innocence by
  • 1789: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by
  • 1790: Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow by Alexander Radishchev
  • 1790: Reflections on the Revolution in France by
  • 1791: Rights of Man by
  • 1792: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft
  • 1794: Songs of Experience by
  • 1798: by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge
  • 1798: An Essay on the Principle of Population published by
  • (mid–18th century): The Dream of the Red Chamber (authorship attributed to ), one of the most famous Chinese novels

Musical works
  • 1711: Rinaldo, 's first opera for the London stage, premiered
  • 1721: Brandenburg Concertos by J.S. Bach
  • 1723: The Four Seasons, violin concertos by , composed
  • 1724: St John Passion by J.S. Bach
  • 1727: St Matthew Passion composed by J.S. Bach
  • 1727: Zadok the Priest is composed by Handel for the coronation of George II of Great Britain. It has been performed at every subsequent British coronation.
  • 1733: Hippolyte et Aricie, first opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau
  • 1741: Goldberg Variations for published by Bach
  • 1742: Messiah, oratorio by premiered in
  • 1749: Mass in B minor by J.S. Bach assembled in current form
  • 1751: The Art of Fugue by J.S. Bach
  • 1762: Orfeo ed Euridice, first "reform opera" by Gluck, performed in
  • 1786: The Marriage of Figaro, opera by Mozart
  • 1787: , opera by Mozart
  • 1788: Jupiter Symphony (Symphony No. 41) composed by Mozart
  • 1791: The Magic Flute, opera by Mozart
  • 1791–1795: London symphonies by
  • 1798: The Pathétique, piano sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven
  • 1798: The Creation, oratorio by first performed

Further reading
  • Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History (1994) 890pp
  • Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies: Wake Forest University, 2004. < Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)>. Refereed.
  • Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
  • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 (1973) online; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
    • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977) online
  • The Wallace Collection, London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

External links
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